Indian Society
₹190.00
The Civil Services Examination (CSE) is a nationwide competitive examination in India conducted by the Union Public Service Commission for recruitment to various Civil Servants of the Government of India, including IAS, IFS, IPS and IRS. It is conducted in three phases – Preliminary Examination consisting of two objective-type papers (General Studies Paper-I and General Studies Paper II also popularly known as Civil Service Aptitude Test), and Main Examination consisting of four General Studies Papers, Compulsory Essay Paper and Optional Subject Paper I & II and Qualifying Paper on Indian Languages and English, followed by Interview Test.
A must-have resource for UPSC PSIR aspirants, this book provides conceptual clarity, theoretical depth, and exam-oriented analysis of comparative political systems, governance models, and frameworks. Covering key topics like political theories, state structures, globalisation, political parties, and social movements, it integrates insights from scholars such as Easton, Almond, Huntington, Dahl, and Marx.
With a structured and simplified approach, real-world examples, and critical analysis, this book enhances answer-writing skills and analytical thinking, making it an indispensable guide for UPSC aspirants, researchers, and political science enthusiasts.
Additional information
Dimensions | 21.59 × 0.55 × 29.93 cm |
---|
Book information
Related products
International Relations & Diplomacy Primer
About the book:
This Primer provides relevant information in a simple and lucid manner, as a capsule and a ready reckoner. It will be useful for students, aspirants as well as anyone who has interest in understanding International Relations and Diplomacy. The topics range from International Organizations, Global Groupings to International Relations Theorists, Treaties, Pacts, Agreements, and much beyond. The Primer is equipped with maps, diagrams, pictures and quotations to generate interest in the reader. The broad expanse of the coverage will make understanding of International Relations terms and concepts easier for UPSC aspirants, not only for International Relations but will also be helpful in several other sections. In consonance with our times, there is special emphasis on the climate and the environment.About the Exam:
The Civil Services Examination (CSE) is a nationwide competitive examination in India conducted by the Union Public Service Commission for recruitment to various Civil Servants of the Government of India, including IAS, IFS, IPS and IRS. It is conducted in three phases – Preliminary Examination consisting of two objective-type papers (General Studies Paper-I and General Studies Paper II also popularly known as Civil Service Aptitude Test), and Main Examination consisting of four General Studies Papers, Compulsory Essay Paper and Optional Subject Paper I & II and Qualifying Paper on Indian Languages and English, followed by Interview Test.Book Features:
- The comprehensive coverage aids UPSC aspirants in understanding International Relations terms and concepts.
- Relevance extends beyond International Relations, providing assistance in various other sections.
- Emphasis on climate and environment reflects alignment with contemporary issues.
- Designed to be a valuable resource for those seeking a quick and informative overview of key subjects.
- Provides a holistic approach to International Relations, offering insights into diverse aspects of the subject matter.
International Relations & Diplomacy Primer
About the book:
This Primer provides relevant information in a simple and lucid manner, as a capsule and a ready reckoner. It will be useful for students, aspirants as well as anyone who has interest in understanding International Relations and Diplomacy. The topics range from International Organizations, Global Groupings to International Relations Theorists, Treaties, Pacts, Agreements, and much beyond. The Primer is equipped with maps, diagrams, pictures and quotations to generate interest in the reader. The broad expanse of the coverage will make understanding of International Relations terms and concepts easier for UPSC aspirants, not only for International Relations but will also be helpful in several other sections. In consonance with our times, there is special emphasis on the climate and the environment.About the Exam:
The Civil Services Examination (CSE) is a nationwide competitive examination in India conducted by the Union Public Service Commission for recruitment to various Civil Servants of the Government of India, including IAS, IFS, IPS and IRS. It is conducted in three phases – Preliminary Examination consisting of two objective-type papers (General Studies Paper-I and General Studies Paper II also popularly known as Civil Service Aptitude Test), and Main Examination consisting of four General Studies Papers, Compulsory Essay Paper and Optional Subject Paper I & II and Qualifying Paper on Indian Languages and English, followed by Interview Test.Book Features:
- The comprehensive coverage aids UPSC aspirants in understanding International Relations terms and concepts.
- Relevance extends beyond International Relations, providing assistance in various other sections.
- Emphasis on climate and environment reflects alignment with contemporary issues.
- Designed to be a valuable resource for those seeking a quick and informative overview of key subjects.
- Provides a holistic approach to International Relations, offering insights into diverse aspects of the subject matter.
ETHICS Made Easy A Unique Approach to GS Paper-IV
About The Author:
Ashok Kumar, Director General of Police (DGP)

Ashok Kumar, an accomplished IPS officer and a graduate of IIT Delhi, is currently the Director General of Police, Uttarakhand. Kumar's commendable contributions have earned him the UN Medal for his dedicated service in strife-torn Kosovo, the Indian Police Medal, and the President's Police Medal for his exceptional service. Additionally, he is a respected author known for insightful works such as Human in Khaki and Challenges to the Internal Security of India. His latest book, Cyber Encounters, is already a bestseller in both English and Hindi editions and has kickstarted a country-wide debate on cybercrimes.
Dr. Rajesh Mohan, IPS Officer

Dr. Rajesh Mohan, an all-India 102 rank-holder in the UPSC CSE, 2020, is an IPS officer of the Haryana cadre. He has an impressive track record in competitive exams such as CMS 2015, HCS exams, and CET and AIPMT. He has previously worked as a Medical Officer at IOFHS. He was selected for the Uttar Pradesh Civil Services exam in 2020.
About the book:
Ethics Made Easy is a unique book to help candidates understand and master GS Paper 4 of the Civil Services Examination. It focuses on the analysis of Previous Years’ Questions and frames content that aligns with sources commonly used by the examiners, like journals and government data, in setting questions in the Ethics paper. Mr. Kumar’s (1989 batch) practical experience in the field over the years and Mr. Mohan’s (2021 batch) deep understanding of the latest trend in the exam blends to make Ethics Made Easy the ultimate comprehensive solution for excelling in the Ethics paper.
Mr. Kumar’s (1989 batch) practical experience in the field over the years and Mr. Mohan’s (2021 batch) deep understanding of the latest trend in the exam blends to make Ethics Made Easy the ultimate comprehensive solution for excelling in the Ethics paper.
Key Features:
-
Content developed through scientific Sources.
-
Tracing exercise based on the analysis of PYQs.
-
Handwritten model answers to case studies by selected civil servants.
-
Model answers to PYQs and Case Studies from 2020 to 2022 in the book.
-
All other model answers and case solutions are available in the book.
-
Unique approach to resolving ethical dilemmas through Ethical Triangulations, the Go/No-Go Model.
-
Framework for approaching case studies.
-
Focus on ensuring each term mentioned in the syllabus is sufficiently covered and explained.
ETHICS Made Easy A Unique Approach to GS Paper-IV
About The Author:
Ashok Kumar, Director General of Police (DGP)

Ashok Kumar, an accomplished IPS officer and a graduate of IIT Delhi, is currently the Director General of Police, Uttarakhand. Kumar's commendable contributions have earned him the UN Medal for his dedicated service in strife-torn Kosovo, the Indian Police Medal, and the President's Police Medal for his exceptional service. Additionally, he is a respected author known for insightful works such as Human in Khaki and Challenges to the Internal Security of India. His latest book, Cyber Encounters, is already a bestseller in both English and Hindi editions and has kickstarted a country-wide debate on cybercrimes.
Dr. Rajesh Mohan, IPS Officer

Dr. Rajesh Mohan, an all-India 102 rank-holder in the UPSC CSE, 2020, is an IPS officer of the Haryana cadre. He has an impressive track record in competitive exams such as CMS 2015, HCS exams, and CET and AIPMT. He has previously worked as a Medical Officer at IOFHS. He was selected for the Uttar Pradesh Civil Services exam in 2020.
About the book:
Ethics Made Easy is a unique book to help candidates understand and master GS Paper 4 of the Civil Services Examination. It focuses on the analysis of Previous Years’ Questions and frames content that aligns with sources commonly used by the examiners, like journals and government data, in setting questions in the Ethics paper. Mr. Kumar’s (1989 batch) practical experience in the field over the years and Mr. Mohan’s (2021 batch) deep understanding of the latest trend in the exam blends to make Ethics Made Easy the ultimate comprehensive solution for excelling in the Ethics paper.
Mr. Kumar’s (1989 batch) practical experience in the field over the years and Mr. Mohan’s (2021 batch) deep understanding of the latest trend in the exam blends to make Ethics Made Easy the ultimate comprehensive solution for excelling in the Ethics paper.
Key Features:
-
Content developed through scientific Sources.
-
Tracing exercise based on the analysis of PYQs.
-
Handwritten model answers to case studies by selected civil servants.
-
Model answers to PYQs and Case Studies from 2020 to 2022 in the book.
-
All other model answers and case solutions are available in the book.
-
Unique approach to resolving ethical dilemmas through Ethical Triangulations, the Go/No-Go Model.
-
Framework for approaching case studies.
-
Focus on ensuring each term mentioned in the syllabus is sufficiently covered and explained.
Understanding the Eternal War between India & Pakistan
About the book:
This is a rare book that goes beyond the typical clichés of civil-military relations, jihad under the nuclear umbrella, India-Pakistan problems and tries to discuss the fault lines plaguing Pakistan, why Kashmir lies at the heart of Pakistan, issues associated with Article 370 and the impact of Pakistani fault lines on the existence of India. This is perhaps the only book which can inform an Indian citizen of exactly what Pakistan is, who "Pakistanis" are and the implications of Pakistani narratives of terrorism and Kashmir on the security of India.Book Features:
- This book serves as an invaluable resource for Indian citizens seeking to understand Pakistan's dynamics and its relationship with India.
- It goes beyond surface-level analyses, offering nuanced insights into the root causes of the perpetual conflict between the two nations.
- Through its in-depth exploration, the book aims to inform readers about the complexities of the India-Pakistan relationship.
- It challenges conventional narratives and provides a fresh perspective on the longstanding tensions between the two countries.
- Overall, "Understanding the Eternal War between India & Pakistan" is a must-read for anyone interested in gaining a deeper understanding of the intricacies of the India-Pakistan conflict.
Understanding the Eternal War between India & Pakistan
About the book:
This is a rare book that goes beyond the typical clichés of civil-military relations, jihad under the nuclear umbrella, India-Pakistan problems and tries to discuss the fault lines plaguing Pakistan, why Kashmir lies at the heart of Pakistan, issues associated with Article 370 and the impact of Pakistani fault lines on the existence of India. This is perhaps the only book which can inform an Indian citizen of exactly what Pakistan is, who "Pakistanis" are and the implications of Pakistani narratives of terrorism and Kashmir on the security of India.Book Features:
- This book serves as an invaluable resource for Indian citizens seeking to understand Pakistan's dynamics and its relationship with India.
- It goes beyond surface-level analyses, offering nuanced insights into the root causes of the perpetual conflict between the two nations.
- Through its in-depth exploration, the book aims to inform readers about the complexities of the India-Pakistan relationship.
- It challenges conventional narratives and provides a fresh perspective on the longstanding tensions between the two countries.
- Overall, "Understanding the Eternal War between India & Pakistan" is a must-read for anyone interested in gaining a deeper understanding of the intricacies of the India-Pakistan conflict.
SYLLABUS 2025 with Planning & Suggestions for UPSC Aspirants
About the book:
Covers the entire syllabus pattern covering planning and suggestion for UPSC Prelims and Main examination. Also talks about the different eligibility criteria, centers of examination and how to apply. Very useful for UPSC aspirants to understand the pattern of examination . Detailed description of syllabus -topic wise given in this book will guide the students in more efficient way for preparing for the examination. Sample papers are also given at the end of the book for revision purpose.
Key Features:
-
Includes sample papers at the end of the book to facilitate revision.
-
Serves as a guide for navigating the complexities of the UPSC examination process.
-
Helps aspirants familiarize themselves with the exam syllabus and format.
-
Equips students with the necessary tools and strategies to excel in the UPSC exams.
-
A beneficial companion for those striving to succeed in the highly competitive UPSC examinations.
SYLLABUS 2025 with Planning & Suggestions for UPSC Aspirants
About the book:
Covers the entire syllabus pattern covering planning and suggestion for UPSC Prelims and Main examination. Also talks about the different eligibility criteria, centers of examination and how to apply. Very useful for UPSC aspirants to understand the pattern of examination . Detailed description of syllabus -topic wise given in this book will guide the students in more efficient way for preparing for the examination. Sample papers are also given at the end of the book for revision purpose.
Key Features:
-
Includes sample papers at the end of the book to facilitate revision.
-
Serves as a guide for navigating the complexities of the UPSC examination process.
-
Helps aspirants familiarize themselves with the exam syllabus and format.
-
Equips students with the necessary tools and strategies to excel in the UPSC exams.
-
A beneficial companion for those striving to succeed in the highly competitive UPSC examinations.
Secret History of Selection of Supreme Court Judges
About the book:
The central argument of this book is that despite all established formal constitutional requirements, there are multiple unwritten criteria that are used for appointing judges to the Supreme Court. The book examines the debates surrounding the Indian judicial system and anecdotal evidences and deeply analyses the Indian political developments that resulted in the present 'collegium system' of appointing judges to the Supreme Court of India and brings to the fore the secret and unwritten criteria that have determined the selection of judges to the highest court of law in this country. The National Judicial Appointments Commission's (NJAC) judgment on the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court has been the subject of a deeply polarized debate in the public sphere and academia. This book subsequently analyses the NJAC judgment and provides a rich context to it, in terms of philosophical, comparative, and constitutional issues that underpin it. The book examines the secret constitutional principles behind selecting judges and their application in the NJAC judgment; and comparatively looks at the judicial appointments process in the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Pakistan, enquiring into what makes a good judge and an effective appointments process. The book is a deep dive into the constitutional concepts of judicial independence and separation of powers as discussed in the NJAC judgment.About The Author:
Pavneet Singh is an educational consultant and is associated with training aspirants for the Civil Services Examination. He is also the author of many best-selling titles for the Civil Services Examination.Secret History of Selection of Supreme Court Judges
About the book:
The central argument of this book is that despite all established formal constitutional requirements, there are multiple unwritten criteria that are used for appointing judges to the Supreme Court. The book examines the debates surrounding the Indian judicial system and anecdotal evidences and deeply analyses the Indian political developments that resulted in the present 'collegium system' of appointing judges to the Supreme Court of India and brings to the fore the secret and unwritten criteria that have determined the selection of judges to the highest court of law in this country. The National Judicial Appointments Commission's (NJAC) judgment on the appointment of judges to the Supreme Court has been the subject of a deeply polarized debate in the public sphere and academia. This book subsequently analyses the NJAC judgment and provides a rich context to it, in terms of philosophical, comparative, and constitutional issues that underpin it. The book examines the secret constitutional principles behind selecting judges and their application in the NJAC judgment; and comparatively looks at the judicial appointments process in the United Kingdom, South Africa, and Pakistan, enquiring into what makes a good judge and an effective appointments process. The book is a deep dive into the constitutional concepts of judicial independence and separation of powers as discussed in the NJAC judgment.About The Author:
Pavneet Singh is an educational consultant and is associated with training aspirants for the Civil Services Examination. He is also the author of many best-selling titles for the Civil Services Examination.THE NO BULLSH*T Book on Answer Writing Book for UPSC-CSE main
About the book:
The art and skill of answer writing is one of the most crucial determinants of qualifying the Civil Services Examination. The candidates are often confused about how to begin to write, when to write, how to write, where to write, for whom to write, and so on. This book traces everything on answer writing from the official UPSC notification, where the guidelines on answer writing are articulated. The book has no desire to spare your feelings or please you by supporting the existing narratives but give you straightforward information on what UPSC needs on answer writing.
Book Features:
-
Answer writing is a critical aspect of qualifying the Civil Services Examination, requiring both art and skill.
-
Candidates frequently face confusion regarding various aspects of answer writing, such as how, when, where, and for whom to write.
-
This book provides comprehensive guidance on answer writing, starting from the official UPSC notification where answer writing guidelines are outlined.
-
It aims to offer straightforward information without sugarcoating or supporting existing narratives, focusing solely on what UPSC requires in answer writing.
-
By addressing common uncertainties and providing clear guidance, the book equips candidates with the necessary tools to excel in answer writing for the Civil Services Examination.
THE NO BULLSH*T Book on Answer Writing Book for UPSC-CSE main
About the book:
The art and skill of answer writing is one of the most crucial determinants of qualifying the Civil Services Examination. The candidates are often confused about how to begin to write, when to write, how to write, where to write, for whom to write, and so on. This book traces everything on answer writing from the official UPSC notification, where the guidelines on answer writing are articulated. The book has no desire to spare your feelings or please you by supporting the existing narratives but give you straightforward information on what UPSC needs on answer writing.
Book Features:
-
Answer writing is a critical aspect of qualifying the Civil Services Examination, requiring both art and skill.
-
Candidates frequently face confusion regarding various aspects of answer writing, such as how, when, where, and for whom to write.
-
This book provides comprehensive guidance on answer writing, starting from the official UPSC notification where answer writing guidelines are outlined.
-
It aims to offer straightforward information without sugarcoating or supporting existing narratives, focusing solely on what UPSC requires in answer writing.
-
By addressing common uncertainties and providing clear guidance, the book equips candidates with the necessary tools to excel in answer writing for the Civil Services Examination.
Environment Mind Maps for UPSC & State Civil Services
About the book:
Environment Mind Maps covers the complete syllabus in Flow Charts and is extremely beneficial for aspirants of UPSC/State Civil Services Preliminary and Main Examinations. This is a ONE STOP SOLUTION for the students to revise the numerous facts of the Ecology, Bio-diversity, Conservation, Environment Impact Assessment and Disaster Management to help them ace their preparation. The Environment needs revision and recalling of facts, and this book on ENVIRONMENT MIND MAPS is the only solution to revise the facts in a lucid manner. The book will prove to be a boon for the aspirants of CSE.
Key features:
-
The Civil Services Examination (CSE) is a nationwide competitive examination in India conducted by the Union Public Service Commission for recruitment to various Civil Servants of the Government of India, including IAS, IFS, IPS and IRS.
-
It is conducted in three phases – Preliminary Examination consisting of two objective-type papers (General Studies Paper-I and General Studies Paper II also popularly known as Civil Service Aptitude Test),
-
Main Examination consisting of four General Studies Papers, Compulsory Essay Paper and Optional Subject Paper I & II and Qualifying Paper on Indian Languages and English, followed by Interview Test.
-
Boon for Aspirants: The book on Environment Mind Maps is positioned as a beneficial tool that will prove advantageous for those aspiring to succeed in the CSE.
Environment Mind Maps for UPSC & State Civil Services
About the book:
Environment Mind Maps covers the complete syllabus in Flow Charts and is extremely beneficial for aspirants of UPSC/State Civil Services Preliminary and Main Examinations. This is a ONE STOP SOLUTION for the students to revise the numerous facts of the Ecology, Bio-diversity, Conservation, Environment Impact Assessment and Disaster Management to help them ace their preparation. The Environment needs revision and recalling of facts, and this book on ENVIRONMENT MIND MAPS is the only solution to revise the facts in a lucid manner. The book will prove to be a boon for the aspirants of CSE.
Key features:
-
The Civil Services Examination (CSE) is a nationwide competitive examination in India conducted by the Union Public Service Commission for recruitment to various Civil Servants of the Government of India, including IAS, IFS, IPS and IRS.
-
It is conducted in three phases – Preliminary Examination consisting of two objective-type papers (General Studies Paper-I and General Studies Paper II also popularly known as Civil Service Aptitude Test),
-
Main Examination consisting of four General Studies Papers, Compulsory Essay Paper and Optional Subject Paper I & II and Qualifying Paper on Indian Languages and English, followed by Interview Test.
-
Boon for Aspirants: The book on Environment Mind Maps is positioned as a beneficial tool that will prove advantageous for those aspiring to succeed in the CSE.
Law Optional For UPSC Civil Services Main Examination I
About the book:
Law Optional for Civil Services Examination focuses on the core concepts and principles of law to ensure a solid understanding of the subject. It adopts a systematic approach and logical sequencing of the material to facilitate effective learning and retention. All relevant updates and recent legal developments are incorporated to ensure aspirants are well-versed in the latest legal principles and precedents. Also, the book provides references to notable cases to enrich the understanding of practical applications.Book Features:
- Exclusively designed for Civil Services Examination.
- Focus on concepts and clarity of principles of law.
- Concise, reliable, and well-structured resource.
- Emphasis on current legal developments with detailed references to leading cases.
Law Optional For UPSC Civil Services Main Examination I
About the book:
Law Optional for Civil Services Examination focuses on the core concepts and principles of law to ensure a solid understanding of the subject. It adopts a systematic approach and logical sequencing of the material to facilitate effective learning and retention. All relevant updates and recent legal developments are incorporated to ensure aspirants are well-versed in the latest legal principles and precedents. Also, the book provides references to notable cases to enrich the understanding of practical applications.Book Features:
- Exclusively designed for Civil Services Examination.
- Focus on concepts and clarity of principles of law.
- Concise, reliable, and well-structured resource.
- Emphasis on current legal developments with detailed references to leading cases.
29 Years UPSC Civil Services Previous Papers I Hindi
About the book:
An adept editorial team at Unique Publishers collaborates closely to ensure students receive the best and accurate content in our books. From the book's inception until it is printed, the entire team, including authors, editors, proofreaders, and others involved in shaping the book, dedicates their expertise, knowledge, and experience to produce the rigorous content provided to students. Taking into consideration the specific requirements of students and various examinations, the carefully crafted, exam-oriented content is developed after thorough research and analysis. The experts have adopted a completely new style of presenting content that is easily understandable, moving away from the old traditional methods that were once considered the most effective. Continuously updating the content to meet the evolving needs of students, our books have become a hallmark of quality and reliability over the past 30 years.
Key Features:
-
The experts at Unique Publishers have embraced a new style of presenting content that is easily understandable for students.
-
The team has moved away from old traditional methods, adopting more effective approaches to enhance comprehension.
-
Continuous updates to the content reflect a commitment to meeting the evolving needs of students.
-
The collaborative efforts of the editorial team contribute to the success and reputation of Unique Publishers in delivering educational content.
29 Years UPSC Civil Services Previous Papers I Hindi
About the book:
An adept editorial team at Unique Publishers collaborates closely to ensure students receive the best and accurate content in our books. From the book's inception until it is printed, the entire team, including authors, editors, proofreaders, and others involved in shaping the book, dedicates their expertise, knowledge, and experience to produce the rigorous content provided to students. Taking into consideration the specific requirements of students and various examinations, the carefully crafted, exam-oriented content is developed after thorough research and analysis. The experts have adopted a completely new style of presenting content that is easily understandable, moving away from the old traditional methods that were once considered the most effective. Continuously updating the content to meet the evolving needs of students, our books have become a hallmark of quality and reliability over the past 30 years.
Key Features:
-
The experts at Unique Publishers have embraced a new style of presenting content that is easily understandable for students.
-
The team has moved away from old traditional methods, adopting more effective approaches to enhance comprehension.
-
Continuous updates to the content reflect a commitment to meeting the evolving needs of students.
-
The collaborative efforts of the editorial team contribute to the success and reputation of Unique Publishers in delivering educational content.
Passport to LBSNAA
About the book:
Passport to LBSNAA is an essential read for any UPSC Civil Services aspirant. It highlights the hidden asymmetries and fallacies that may crop up during the preparation of this examination and cautions the readers against them. It is a brilliant and bouncy guide to a rational plan of preparation with the right set of books. It maps out a way to read and internalize the prescribed syllabus within a reasonable timeline, and gives tips on how to adopt the right strategies to remain clear-headed.
Key Features:
-
The guide exhibits a vibrant and engaging style, making it an enjoyable read for candidates.
-
It outlines a systematic approach to cover the prescribed syllabus within a reasonable timeframe.
-
The resource offers practical tips on how to internalize the syllabus content effectively.
-
It advocates adopting clear-headed strategies, helping candidates remain focused and well-prepared throughout their preparation.
Passport to LBSNAA
About the book:
Passport to LBSNAA is an essential read for any UPSC Civil Services aspirant. It highlights the hidden asymmetries and fallacies that may crop up during the preparation of this examination and cautions the readers against them. It is a brilliant and bouncy guide to a rational plan of preparation with the right set of books. It maps out a way to read and internalize the prescribed syllabus within a reasonable timeline, and gives tips on how to adopt the right strategies to remain clear-headed.
Key Features:
-
The guide exhibits a vibrant and engaging style, making it an enjoyable read for candidates.
-
It outlines a systematic approach to cover the prescribed syllabus within a reasonable timeframe.
-
The resource offers practical tips on how to internalize the syllabus content effectively.
-
It advocates adopting clear-headed strategies, helping candidates remain focused and well-prepared throughout their preparation.
Reviews
There are no reviews yet.